Selasa, 27 Agustus 2019

THE PROCESS OF WRITING


THE PROCESS OF WRITING
Lecturer : Prof. Mashadi





                            Grup 1 :
  1. Clementine Isti A  20177479250
  2. Dody Wahyudi P 2017747925
  3. Nana Suryana 20177479246
  4. Hamidah  20177479241
  5. Doni Sentiaji  20177479238

 
By :











UNIVERSITAS INDRAPRASTA PGRI
FAKULTAS PASCASARJANA
2018
           

1.      Prewriting
Prewriting is the first stage of the writing process, and includes all the things you do before you are ready to write out the first version of your text. It  is everything you do before you begin to draft the paper. Look over an assignment handout, choose and narrow your topic, and assess your audience and purpose. Research is also an important aspect of prewriting. Otherwise, the best way to start is to ask yourself the questions listed below:
a.      What shall I write about?
This is a question about the topic or theme of your writing. If you choose something that moves you in some way, your writing is more likely to be interesting to the reader.
Why do I want to write about it?
This is a question about the purpose of your writing, and it is linked to the first question. Here are some of the possible purposes you may have for a piece of work:
to explain, to inform/instruct, to describe, to narrate, to persuade, to move, or to amuse/entertain.
b.      What kind of writing shall I do?
This is a question about the genre of your work. Here are some of the genres you could choose from: short story, poem, letter, narrative, news story, essay, book/film review
Report, or biography.
c.       Who am I writing it for?
This is a question about the audience for your writing. For example: Will it be posted on a bulletin board? Do you want to publish it in a school magazine? Is it a letter addressed to the leader of the student council? Or is it a research journal?.
2.      Planning
When you have answered those questions above, you are ready to start planning your writing. Depending on your topic, you can collect ideas and make notes by doing one or more of the following activities:
a.       Thinking/brainstorming
b.      Brainstorming - is the process of coming up with as many ideas as possible about a topic without being worried about the feasibility or whether an idea is realistic or not.
c.       Reading, researching and take notes on a topic
d.      Observing and make lists of ideas on a topic
e.       Interviewing, you may also need to consider your audience before you begin to write. To make sure that your writing will fit the audience you are addressing, you need to consider who they are.
f.       Discussing ideas about a topic with others and take no test
g.      Imagining/fantasizing make a cluster, which is a visual map of ideas and concepts related to your topic  
h.      Note-taking is ask questions about a topic
The final task of the prewriting stage is to organize your ideas and notes into a logical order. You may find it helpful to write an outline or use some kind of chart or table to organize the information you have collected. You are now ready for the next stage of the writing process - drafting!



Step 1 : Choosing and narrowing a topic
> When you are given a free topic and can write about something you are interested in, then you must narrow the topic to a particular aspect of that general subject. You  must narrow the subject of your paragraph to a specific focus so that you can write about it clearly and completely.
After you have chosen a topic narrowed it to a specific focus, the next prewriting step is to generate ideas. This is called brainstorming.
There are three useful brainstorming techniques :
a.       Listing > produce as many ideas as possible by listing the words or phrases that come into our mind.
b.      Freewriting > generate as many ideas as possible and to write them down without worrying about appropriateness, grammar, spelling, logic or organization. Remember the more you freewrite, the more ideas you will have. This strategy is when you write whatever comes into your mind about the topic at hand for a specific amount of time, like 10 or 15 minutes. Instead, you should try and come up with as many ideas as you possibly can to help you when you get to the writing process.
c.       Clustering > clustering is another brainstorming activity that you can use to generate ideas. In the center of your paper, write your topic and draw “balloon” around it. Then, write whatever ideas come to you in balloons around core.

3.      Writing and Revising draft
Stage three in the writing process, after prewriting and planning, is writing and revising several drafts until you have produced a final copy.
There are some steps that you should do before you write a final copy to hand in :
a.    Writing the first rough draft
Writing the rough draft is a transition, one that takes you from the mental aspect of note taking, outlining and prewriting to the act of writing. Your topic is defined with a clarified and supported focus. As you incorporate all the work you have completed up to this point, keep in mind that your rough draft is just that—a rough copy of your paper that you continue to shape, edit and strengthen after it is written.
With that in mind, you can tackle your rough draft. Focus on the content and the flow of information rather than on the little details, such as detailed information and grammar –there is plenty of time to clean up and strengthen your paper between the rough draft and the final version. Your rough draft consists of writing an introduction, supporting body paragraphs and a conclusion. As you write, keep the following tips in mind:
·            Maintain a logical development
·            Create smooth transitions between paragraphs
·            Stay in the active voice
·            Vary your sentence structure by using simple, complex and compound sentences
·            Avoid 1-2 sentence paragraphs
What you need to get started:
·            Your notes
·            Your outline
·            A clear mind
·            Time and room to work
While following your outline is important, putting every little detail and piece of supporting information into your paper in the rough draft is not always necessary, but do what works for you. Your notes and outline together serve as guides for what you intend to include and where you intend to include it.
Writing the introduction of your rough draft
With your outline in sight, start writing the introduction of your rough draft. The ultimate goal of a strong introduction is to get the attention and interest of your readers. In addition, your introduction should do the following:
  • Include some background information on your topic
  • Make the perspective and point of view clear
  • Contain your thesis statement
  • Provide a roadmap of how your paper is organized (broadly defined)
  • Focus on the main points you make within the body of your paper
Writing the body paragraphs of your rough draft
The body paragraphs of your rough draft are the backbone of your paper; they hold the supporting information that backs up your thesis. Keep the suggestions below in mind as you write each paragraph:
Start each paragraph with a clear topic sentence that defines what the paragraph is about
Write smooth transitions between paragraphs using transitional words and phrases
Avoid writing paragraphs that are too short because they show a lack of development
Stay in the active voice to keep your paper clear and effective
Maintain your point of view or perspective to keep the paper focused
Avoid summarizing information you have already written about –save it for the conclusion
Support your perspective and interpretations with data in the form of indirect and direct quotations
Replace your keywords with synonyms periodically to avoid repetitive language
Cite all sourced material
Make sure the sentences of each paragraph flow to form a cohesive point
Writing the conclusion of your rough draft
The conclusion of your rough draft is where you tie everything together. Some of the information is similar to that found in the introduction, but it should not be a word-for-word copy. In the conclusion, more emphasis is placed on the results of your research or on broader implications on the subject as a whole. To write the conclusion, follow the below steps:
Re-read your introduction while paying particular attention to the development of it and supporting body paragraphs
Set the introduction aside
Summarize the argument made in your introduction
Conclude your argument(s)
Ultimately, your conclusion is your last chance to help readers truly understand what your paper is about, so it needs to show the order and importance of your main points and show how you logically conclude the paper.
Remember as you write your rough draft that it is okay to omit the more detailed information to focus on the flow and transition of each paragraph. The details obtained through your research are easily added after the first draft is complete. In fact, through the process of finalizing your paper, you are likely to edit, proofread, make corrections and change things up quite a bit.
Once the basics of your paper are in place, though, applying those finishing touches to strengthen your paper is much easier. With a rough draft completed, you should take a day or two away from the paper to provide clarity and a fresh perspective when you come back to finalizing it.

b.    Revising content and organization
Writing is a process of discovery, and you don’t always produce your best stuff when you first get started. So revision is a chance for you to look critically at what you have written to see:
·         if it’s really worth saying,
·         if it says what you wanted to say, and
·         if a reader will understand what you’re saying.
Here are several things to do. But don’t try them all at one time. Instead, focus on two or three main areas during each revision session:
·         Wait awhile after you’ve finished a draft before looking at it again. The Roman poet Horace thought one should wait nine years, but that’s a bit much. A day—a few hours even—will work. When you do return to the draft, be honest with yourself, and don’t be lazy. Ask yourself what you really think about the paper.
·         As The Scott, Foresman Handbook for Writers puts it, “THINK BIG, don’t tinker” (61). At this stage, you should be concerned with the large issues in the paper, not the commas.
·         Check the focus of the paper: Is it appropriate to the assignment? Is the topic too big or too narrow? Do you stay on track through the entire paper?
·         Think honestly about your writing: Do you still agree with it? Should it be modified in light of something you discovered as you wrote the paper? Does it make a sophisticated, provocative point, or does it just say what anyone could say if given the same topic? Does your writing generalize instead of taking a specific position? Should it be changed altogether?
Think about your purpose in writing: Does your introduction state clearly what you intend to do? Will your aims be clear to your readers?

c.    Proofreading the second draft
Remember, though, that revision of an essay is not simply proofreading. Proofreading is checking over a draft to make sure that everything is complete and correct as far as spelling, grammar, sentence structure, punctuation, and such matters go; it's a necessary, if somewhat tedious and tricky job, one that a friend could help you with--even if that friend is a "Spellcheck" on a computer. No machine can help you with true revision, however, nor would you want it to--a re-vision of your essay, how you see things now, deciding whether your thesis and body, and also your introduction and conclusion, really express your vision.
Revision is global, taking another look at what ideas you have included in your paper and how they are arranged; proofreading is polishing, one spot at a time. That's why revision should come before proofreading: why polish what you might be changing anyway?

d.   Writing the final copy
A final draft is a piece of writing that will be handed in as your best work. Students should treat crafting a final draft as a task of increased importance, because it is their last chance to enhance their paper and correct any flaws.



Steps for Crafting the Final Draft of an Essay
Take a break after writing your second draft. You will have to revise your second draft at least three more times until it is put in order—have a rest before starting the final copy of your paper.
Do a spellcheck of your second draft. You should revise your paper in terms of misspelled words, typos, and accidental word repetitions; you could also perform a punctuation check at this interval.
Do a grammar check. It is a process that requires extreme caution, because grammatical mistakes may be far less obvious than spelling errors. This check implies correcting faulty parallelisms, problems with noun-verb agreement, dangling participles, improper usage of passive voice, and so on.
After you’ve checked the language of your paper, it is time to pay attention to its technical aspects. This includes the formatting style, your reference list, in-text citations, and the title page. Make sure all of these correspond with the requirements of your teacher or the publication you are submitting your essay to.
Revise the whole piece of writing once again. Since it is the last time you will read through it with an intention to make corrections, be extra-attentive and check every little detail in the text. Evaluate the structure of your essay, the way your arguments are organized, and the credibility of these arguments. Check for poor or non-existent transitions between paragraphs, pay attention to grammar, stylistics, syntax, and punctuation.



Key Points to Consider
Reading your final draft aloud will grant you an opportunity to take a fresh look at what you have written. Weaknesses in writing are usually easier to notice when heard.
Your paper should be written in your own words, except abstracts where you are using citations. It is always better to show your own understanding of an issue, even if it is incorrect, than to frame your ideas in another author’s words. A final draft is your last chance to exclude any possible signs of plagiarism from your paper.
Using a computer for proofreading is a sound idea, since text processing software often has a function of automatic spelling and grammar checking. However, proofreading on your own once again after the computer check is still recommended to avoid mistakes a computer may not have found.
Do and Don’t
Do
Do check whether your thesis statement is stated clearly, and whether it encompasses all of your key ideas. Also, check if your introduction draws readers’ attention in.
Do check whether each of your paragraphs represents an idea. It is important that multiple ideas are not crammed into one paragraph; topic sentences showing these main ideas should be included into each paragraph as well.
Do evaluate your evidence. It shouldn’t be insufficient, but the paper shouldn’t be overburdened with too much factual information as well.
Don’t
Don’t try to read your writing on a computer screen. After you’ve made a spell-check on the computer, print your essay out, and proofread the hard copy. It is much easier to perceive information on paper.
Don’t rely on automatic spell and grammar checkers. Though these tools contribute to the process of proofreading, they are far from being perfect, therefore they can miss obvious errors.
Don’t leave proofreading the final draft copy for the last minute; give yourself enough time to revise your paper thoroughly, because most likely this piece of writing is the one you will hand in.
Don’t be afraid to give your final draft to a friend or another person you trust for proofreading. A person who has never seen your piece of writing will take a fresh look at it, and most likely notice flaws and errors you’ve missed.
Common Mistakes When Crafting the Final Draft of an Essay
– Incomplete references. Students often tend to hurry when crafting the final draft to finally finish the writing process, and forget about the proper formatting of in-text citations and sources in the reference list.
– Forgetting to spell out abbreviations. You should provide a complete transcript of a certain term or name before using an abbreviation for it.
– Not explaining the meaning of uncommon words. Students use a term with a specific meaning, but forget to specify it; spell-checkers may not flag the term, and neither will these students pay attention to it while proofreading since it may have been spelled correctly.



LANGUAGE CURRICULUM DESIGN : AN OVERVIEW



LANGUAGE CURRICULUM DESIGN : AN OVERVIEW

Lecturer : Dr. Gustaman Saragih, M.Pd




                                                                          Grup 1 :
  1. Lukman 
  2. Aris Munandar
  3. Nana Suryana 20177479246
  4. Hamidah  20177479241
  5. Siti Fitriastuti 

 
By :







UNIVERSITAS INDRAPRASTA PGRI
FAKULTAS PASCASARJANA
2018




PREFACE
       
Thank to Almighty God who has given His bless to the writer for finishing this paper entitled “English Curriculum Design: An Overview”. And we would like to say thank you to Dr. Saragih. as the lecturer who always teaches us and give much knowledge about the curriculum design.
We realized this paper is not perfect, but we hope it can be useful for us. Critics and suggestion is needed here to make this paper be better.Hopefully, this paper can help the readers to expand their knowledge the curriculum design.
Jakarta, October 7th 2018

Author





















TABLE OF CONTENT


PREFACE...............................................................................................1
Chapter I   INTRODUCTION..............................................................3
A.    BACKROUND.......................................................................................3
B.     QUESTIONS.........................................................................................4
C.    GOALS..................................................................................................4

Chapter II  DISCUSSION....................................................................5
A.     Definition and Parts of the Curriculum Design Process........5
B.      Considering the Environments..................................................7
C.    Discovering Needs.................................................................................8
D.    Following Principles.............................................................................9
E.     Goals.....................................................................................................10
F.     Content and Sequencing.....................................................................11
G.    Finding a Format and Presenting Materials.....................................13
H.    Monitoring and Assessing...................................................................14
I.       Evaluating a Course............................................................................15

Chapter III  CONCLUSION..............................................................16
            Summary..................................................................................17



















CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION


A.    BACKROUND
Designing a curriculum is ideally something that is first of all effective and matches assessment with what is taught on a course. However, it also aims to give students a broader perspective. This approach to design is not only shaped by knowledge of your subject but by the many internal and external influences that impact on the academic content of the University’s modules and programmes. (University of Sheffield.ac.uk)
These influences include:
  • Departmental and institutional Learning and Teaching assessment strategies
  • Broader debates in Higher Education and assessment strategies
  • Professional accreditation requirements
For many, an essential step in the design and development of the curriculum is an understanding of the role of Constructive Alignment (Biggs, 1999). Its primary focus is to ensure that there is a clear and direct relationship between the learning outcomes students are expected to meet, the methods by which they are assessed and the learning activities  designed to enable them to achieve the Intended Learning Outcomes. Consequently, this process needs to be both transparent to students and across a department.
One of the many influences in shaping the design of the curriculum is the expectations for aSheffield Graduate. By the time they graduate, the University aims to enable all graduates to demonstrate that they are:
  • Knowledgeable in their subject
  • A skilled and ethical researcher
  • A critical, analytical and creative thinker
  • An entrepreneurial problem solver
  • Information literate
  • Skilled in the use of it
  • An efficient planner and time manager
  • A flexible team worker
  • An accomplished communicator
  • An independent learner
  • An active citizen who respects diversity
  • Culturally agile and able to work in multinational settings
  • Professional and adaptable
  • Well rounded, reflective, self aware and self motivated 
  • Competent in applying their skills and knowledge
In addition to providing students with specific goals, this definition can serve as a framework for us in creating a curriculum that supports the students in meeting these objectives.        (University of Sheffield)

B.     QUESTIONS

A.    What is the defenition of Curriculum Design ?
B.     What are the parts as a whole in Language Curriculum Design : An overview ?
C.     What are the big components  in Language Curriculum Design : An overview ?
D.    How is the function of its instrument ?

C.    GOALS
A.    To understand the defenition of curriculum design an overview.
B.     To get to know the parts or big ideas about designing course an overview.
C.     Know the function of each instruments and consider the use of it.
CHAPTER 2
DISCUSSION

A.     Definition and Parts of the Curriculum Design Process
Figure 1.1 A model of the parts ( Mercedes Symbol ) of the curriculum design process.
      Curriculum design can be seen as a kind of writing, gathering, ordering, reviewing, editing ideas and information activity which are  :
  Sistematically arranged
  Based on experience,and
  According to scientifically proven concept
and as such it can usefully be studied as a process. The typical sub-processes of the writing process (gathering ideas, ordering ideas, ideas to text, reviewing, editing) can be applied to curriculum design, but it makes it easier to draw on current curriculum design theory and practice if a different set of parts is used. The curriculum design model in Figure 1.1 consists of three outside circles and a subdivided inner circle. The outer circles (principles, environment, needs) involve practical and theoretical considerations that will have a major effect in guiding the actual process of course production. There is a wide range of factors to consider when designing a course. These include the learners’ present knowledge and lacks, the resources available including time, the skill of the teachers, the curriculum designer’s strengths and limitations, and principles of teaching and learning. If factors such as these are not considered then the course may be unsuited to the situation and learners for which it is used, and may be ineffective and inefficient as a means of encouraging learning. In the curriculum design process these factors are considered in three sub-processes, environment analysis, needs analysis and the application of principles. The result of environment analysis is a ranked list of factors and a consideration of the effects of these factors on the design. The result of needs analysis is a realistic list of language, ideas or skill items, as a result of considering the present proficiency, future needs and wants of the learners. The application of principles involves first of all deciding on the most important principles to apply and monitoring their application through the whole design process. The result of applying principles is a course where learning is given the greatest support. Some curriculum designers distinguish curriculum from syllabus. In the model, both the outer circles and the inner circle make up the curriculum.
       The inner circle represents the syllabus. The inner circle has goals as its centre. This is meant to reflect the importance of having clear general goals for a course. The content and sequencing Chapter 1 part of the inner circle represents the items to learn in a course, and the order in which they occur, plus the ideas content if this is used as a vehicle for the items and not as a goal in itself. Language courses must give consideration to the language content of a course even if this is not presented in the course as a discrete item. Consideration of content makes sure that there is something useful for the learners to learn to advance their control of the language, that they are getting the best return for learning effort in terms of the usefulness of what they will meet in the course, and that they are covering all the things they need to cover for a balanced knowledge of the language. The format and presentation part of the inner circle represents the format of the lessons or units of the course, including the techniques and types of activities that will be used to help learning. This is the part of the course that the learners are most aware of. It is important that it is guided by the best available principles of teaching and learning.
       The monitoring and assessment part of the inner circle represents the need to give attention to observing learning, testing the results of learning, and providing feedback to the learners about their progress. It is often not a part of commercially designed courses. It provides information that can lead to changes at most of the other parts of the curriculum design process. It is possible to imagine a large circle drawn completely around the whole model. This large outer circle represents evaluation. Evaluation can involve looking at every aspect of a course to judge if the course is adequate and where it needs improvement. It is generally a neglected aspect of curriculum design. Chapters 2 to 8 of this book examine each of the parts of the curriculum design process in detail, drawing on relevant theory and research. It is possible to design courses without drawing on relevant research, theory and experience. In all but a few fortunate cases this results in common faults in curriculum design being made yet again. The shape of the model in Figure 1.1 is designed to make it easy to remember. The three-part shape that occurs in each of the outer circles (the “Mercedes” symbol) also occurs in the large inner circle, and also occurs in the way the three outer circles connect to the inner circle. In this first chapter of this book, we will look briefly at an overview of the parts of the curriculum design process that will be looked at in more detail in the following chapters of the book, with each of the early chapters focusing on a different part of the model.

In the other hand, the list of curriculum process also includes these following terms :
1.       Diagnosis of needs
2.       Formulation of objectives
3.       Selection of content
4.       Organization of content
5.       Selection of learning experience
6.       Organization of learning experiences
7.       Determinination of what to evaluate,and the means to evaluate.


B.  CONSIDERING THE ENVIRONMENTS

Environment analysis involves considering the factors of the situation in which the course will be used and determining how the course should take account of them. One way of approaching environment analysis is to work from a list of questions which focus on the nature of the learners, the teachers and the teaching situation. There is value in spending some time on these questions particularly if the answers are ranked according to something like the following instructions and criterion.
Choose three factors which will have the strongest effect on the design of the course. Rank these three from the factor which will most determine what you should do to the one which has the least influence of the three.
Here are some of the top factors decided on by several teachers designing different courses for different learners.
1.      One teacher decided that the learners’ lack of interest in learning English should be the major factor influencing curriculum design. Thelearners were obliged to do an English course as part of their degree but received no credit for it. This meant that the teacher’s goal of making the course as interesting and motivating as possible guided the design of the course, particularly the format and presentation of lessons.
2.      One teacher decided that the learners’ plan to move on to academic study in university or technical institute courses should have the   greatest effect on design of the English course. This had a far-reaching effect on the language items and the language skills focused on, and the type of learning activity.
3.     One teacher decided that the externally designed and administered                                    test at the end of the course should be the major factor. This meant        that the course book always had to make it obvious to the learners that the work they were doing was directly related to the test.

Here is a short list of some of the other factors that teachers considered
most important.
• The small amount of time available for the course
• The large size of the classes
• The wide range of proficiency in the class
• The immediate survival needs of the learners
• The lack of appropriate reading materials
• The teachers’ lack of experience and training
• The learners’ use of the first language in the classroom
• The need for the learners to be more autonomous

There are many examples of unsuccessful curriculum design where the
background questions were not considered. Here are some examples :
1.  The communicatively based course which was deserted by its
Vietnamese learners because they were not getting the grammar teaching
that they expected. They set up their own grammar-based course.
2.      The course for Agricultural students which had a simplified version of
The Moonstone by Wilkie Collins as its main reading text. Some of the
learners produced their own translation of it which they copied and sold
to other learners. They saw no value in coming to grips with its content
through English.
3.     The adult conversation course which began with the game “Simon
Says”. Half the students stopped attending after the first lesson. There is
no conversation in “Simon Says”.
Each important factor needs to be accompanied by one or more effects. For
example, the factor “the large size of the class” could have the following
effects on the curriculum design.
a.       A large amount of group work.
b.       Use of special large class techniques like oral reproduction, blackboard
reproduction, the pyramid procedure involving the individual–pair–
group–class sequence (Nation and Newton, 2009).
c.      Independent work or individualised tasks.

The importance of environment analysis is that it makes sure that the course
will really be suitable, practical and realistic.


C.  DISCOVERING NEEDS

      Hutchinson and Waters (1987) make a useful division of learners’ needs into :
1.      Necessities (what the learner has to know to function effectively).
2.      Lacks (what the learner knows and does not know already) and
3.      Wants (what thelearners think they need).
These are discovered by a variety of means: by testing, by questioning and interviewing, by recalling previous performance, by consulting employers, teachers and others involved, by collecting data such as textbooks and manuals that the learners will have to read and analysing them, and by investigating the situations where the learners will need to use the language. Ways of doing needs analysis can be evaluated by the same general criteria used to evaluate tests – reliability, validity and practicality.


Necessities, lacks and wants may all involve some kind of comparison or
reference to lists of items which can act as the learning goals of the course.  An exception to this is to base the course on what the learners request. In this case the lists are created by the learners. This is effective if the learners have very clear purposes for learning English which they are aware of. For example, a course for immigrants who have been in the country a few
months could very effectively be based on a list of things that they suggest they want to be able to do in English. We will look more closely at this in the chapter on negotiated syllabuses.

D.  FOLLOWING PRINCIPLES
We define the principles such as  knowledge, education, experience based on research related to the kind of course that can support the designer.
Research on language teaching and learning should be used to guide decisions on curriculum design. There is considerable research on the nature of language and language acquisition which can guide the choice of what to teach and how to sequence it. There is also a lot of research on how to encourage learning in general and language learning in particular which can be used to guide the presentation of items to be learned. The principles derived
from this research include principles on the importance of repetition and thoughtful processing of material, on the importance of taking account of individual differences and learning style, and on learner attitudes and motivation.
It is very important that curriculum design makes the connection between the research and theory of language learning and the practice of designing lessons and courses. There is a tendency for this connection not to be made, with the result that curriculum design and therefore learners do not benefit from developments in knowledge gained from research. A striking example of this is the failure of courses to take account of the findings regarding the interference that occurs when semantically and formally related items, such as opposites, near synonyms and lexical sets, are presented together. (Higa, 1963; Tinkham, 1993).
In spite of the clear findings of this research, which is supported by a large body of research less firmly in the area of language learning, course books continue to present names of the parts of the body, items in the kitchen, opposites such as hot–cold, long–short, old–new, numbers, days of the week and articles of clothing in the same lesson.  As Tinkham (1993) and Higa (1963) show, this will have the effect of making learning more difficult than it should be.
Chapter 4 of this book describes a list of 20 principles that can be used to guide curriculum design. It is not an exhaustive list and is based to some degree on the personal prejudices of the writers. Curriculum designers may wish to create their own lists (see Brown, 1993; Ellis, 2005 and Jones, 1993 for examples of other short lists; see also Richards, 2001 and Tomlinson, 2003 for discussion of the application of principles in materials development).
What is important is that curriculum design is treated as a normal part of the field of applied linguistics and thus draws on available knowledge to guide it.


E.   GOALS
Curriculum design has a goal as its centre. To decide why the course is being taught and what the learners need from it.
Goals can be expressed in general terms and be given more detail when considering the content of the course. Here are some examples of goals that have been set for language courses.
1.    The aim of communicative teaching is to encourage students to exploit all the elements of the language that they know in order to make their meanings clear. Students cannot be expected to master every aspect of the language before they are allowed to use it for communicative purposes. (Orbit, Harrison and Menzies, 1986)
2.      Trio aims to
(a) Encourage students to communicate in a wide range of everyday
     Situations.
(b) Sustain interest and motivation...
(c) Help students understand and formulate the grammatical rules of
     English.
 (d) Develop students’ receptive skills beyond those of their productive
     skills.
(e) Give students insights into daily life in Britain.
(f) Develop specific skills, including skills required for examination
     purposes.
(g) Contribute to the students’ personal, social and educational development.
    (Trio, Radley and Sharley, 1987).

3.      Passages extends students’ communicative competence by developing
their ability to:
• Expand the range of topics they can discuss and comprehend in
English
• Speak English fluently (express a wide range of ideas without
unnecessary pauses or breakdowns in communication)
• Speak English accurately (use an acceptable standard of pronunciation
and grammar when communicating). (Passages, Richards and Sandy, 1998)

4.      Students continue to develop speaking and listening skills necessary
for participating in classroom discussions with an introduction to oral
presentation and critical listening skills.
(College Oral Communication, Roemer, 2006).
Having a clear statement of goals is important for determining the content of the course, for deciding on the focus in presentation, and in guiding
assessment.


F.  CONTENT AND SEQUENCING
The content of language courses consists of the language items, ideas, skills and strategies that meet the goals of the course. The viewpoint taken in this book is that even though the units of progression in a course might be tasks, topics or themes, it is important for the curriculum designer to keep some check on vocabulary, grammar and discourse to make sure that important items are being covered and repeated. If there is no check being made, it may happen that learners are not meeting items that are important for their later use of the language. It may also happen that items are not being met often enough to establish them.

One way to provide a systematic and well-researched basis for a course is to make use of frequency lists and other lists of language items or skills. These lists should be chosen and adapted as a result of the needs analysis in order to set the language learning content of the course. A list may be used as a way of checking or determining the content of a course, but this does not mean that the lessons have to consist of item by item teaching.
Working from lists makes sure that what should be covered is covered and is not left to chance.
Example : Frequency vocabularies and structure.
A conversation course for example could be carefully planned to cover the important high frequency vocabulary and structures, and still consist of a series of very free task-based conversation activities (Joe, Nation and Newton, 1996).
Typical lists include :
1.      Frequency-based vocabulary lists. These consist of lists of words with indicators of their frequency of occurrence. Perhaps the best known is
Michael West’s (1953) General Service List of English Words which contains 2,000 high-frequency word families. This is a good source for
Courses at the beginner and intermediate level. Other lists include The
Cambridge English Lexicon (Hindmarsh, 1980) and the First 1,000, Second 1,000, and Third 1,000 lists produced by the English Language
Institute (Nation, 1984). The COBUILD dictionary (1995) indicates
the frequency levels of higher-frequency vocabulary. At a more specialised and advanced level, the academic word list (Coxhead, 2000)
Contains 570 word families useful for study in the upper levels of
English-medium secondary schools and at university.
2.      Frequency lists of verb forms and verb groups. These contain items such
as simple past, present continuous, verb + to + stem (where the stem is
dominant) going to + stem, and can + stem (ability) along with information about their frequency of occurrence, mainly in written text. The most striking feature of these lists is the very high frequency of a small number of items, such as simple past, verb + to + stem, and the very low frequency of most of the items studied (many of which are given unjustified prominence in many course books and grading schemes for simplified readers). These lists can be found in George 1963a, 1963b, and 1972; see also Appendix 1 of this book. The more recent Biber et al. (1999) grammar contains frequency information. Comparison of beginners’ books of published courses with these lists shows that the course books contain a mixture of high-frequency and lowfrequency items and could be considerably improved with more   informed selection.
3.      Lists of functions and topics. These lists are not frequency-based and as a result selection of items must be based on perceived need which is less reliable than frequency evidence. The most useful of the available lists is Van Ek and Alexander (1980).
4.      Lists of subskills and strategies. These include the subskills of listening, speaking, reading and writing, and language coping and learning strategies.
5.      There are lists of tasks, topics and themes that curriculum designers can refer to (Munby, 1978; Van Ek and Alexander, 1980; Prabhu, 1987), but it is better for curriculum designers to develop their own lists.


G.  FINDING A FORMAT AND PRESENTING MATERIAL
Format has dealing with presenting material.  Format is about how the materials are arranged and formed .  In the delivery of the material in courses for learners is delivered in the form of one such presentation. in making a presentation have sources used as a basis for a lesson will have a decisive effect on the ease of making lessons.  This is not only a presentation but also aspects of the selection, such as sequencing and the amount of time given for the smooth work, because curriculum design is not a linear process , it may be necessary to alter the content or sequencing to suit the lesson format and to reorder the list of environmental factors. it can be argued that the first presentation of an item is not as important as the later repetitions of that item .  This is often neglected in courses , but it is crucial to learning . It is through repeated meetings that items are enriched and established.




The advantages to have a set format for lessons :
  1. Easier to make
because  each one does not have to be planned separately.
  1. Easier to monitor
It will be easy to check if all that should be include is there and that accepted principles are being followed.
  1. Easier to learn
it makes the lessons easier to learn from because the learners can predictwhat will occur and are soon familiar with the learning procedures required by different parts of the lesson .
The sources of the material used as a basis for the lessons will have decisive effects on the ease of making the lessons and of the possibility of future distribution or publication of the course . a shortcut here is simply to take suitable material from other courses , adapting it as required .
There is a substantial set of principles that need to be applied at this stage ( see chapter 4) . these concern not only presentation but also selection aspects, such as sequencing and the amount of time given to fluency work. the lesson format needs to be checked against the environment analysis of the course to make sure that the major environmental factors are being considered.
Because curriculum design is not a linear process , it may be necessary to alter the content or sequencing to suit the lesson format and to reorder the list of environmental factors. the lessons may still require adjustment as a result of consideration of other stages of the curriculum design . perhaps the most difficult task at this stage is making sure that the learning goals of the course are met. that is , that the wanted language item are well- represented and well-presented in the course .
It can be argued that the first presentation of an item is not as important as the later repetitions of that item .this is often neglected in courses , but it is crucial to learning . it is through repeated meetings that items are enriched and established.

H.  MONITORING AND ASSESSING
The aims of curriculum design are to make a course that has useful goals, that achieves its goals, that satisfies its users , and that does all this in an efficient way. an important recurring part of the design process is to asses how well these aims are achieved .
Monitoring is the regular observation and recording of activities taking place in a project or programme. It is a process of routinely gathering information on all aspects of the project.
  To monitor is to check on how project activities are progressing.
   It is observation; ─ systematic and purposeful observation.
  Monitoring also involves giving feedback about the progress of the project to the donors, implementors and beneficiaries of the project.
  Reporting enables the gathered information to be used in making decisions for improving project performance.

Monitoring provides information that will be useful in:
v  Analysing the situation in the community and its project;
v  Determining whether the inputs in the project are well utilized;
v  Identifying problems facing the community or project and finding solutions;
v  Ensuring all activities are carried out properly by the right people and in time;
v  Using lessons from one project experience on to another; and
v  Determining whether the way the project was planned is the most appropriate way of solving the problem at hand.

Purpose of Monitoring:
  Monitoring is very important in project planning and implementation.
  It is like watching where you are going while riding a bicycle; you can adjust as you go along and ensure that you are on the right track.
Assessing  is the way to value the learner’s ability. It becomes a reflection of teacher’s succes and what have been done in monitoring process in order to optimize the course.


Generally involves :
  The use of test. Test is used to find the distinction of learner’s ability based on the purpose on what level it is tested.
  Achievement test. To measure what has been learned from a particular course.
  Proficiency test. It maybe used to measure learners level of language knowledge before entering a course and after a course is completed and has been assessed.
  Placement test. To see whether the course is suitable or not for a prospective learners or to see where in the course the learners should begin.
  Diagnostic test. This is intended to see if the learners has particular gap in their knowledge.

I.      EVALUATING A COURSE
The last process in designing course is evaluating.  The course will be evaluated as a whole in evaluation process, and  information gained from assessment is one of useful source of data about the effectiveness of a course.  Basically evaluation tries to answer the question
Is this a good course? “.
Program Evaluation
1.      Steps in evaluation
2.      Type and focus of evaluation
3.      Gathering information
4.      Working with the result

Good Course determiners :
  1. Attracts a lot of students
  2. Makes a lot of money
  3. Satisfies the learners
  4. Satisfies the teachers
  5. Satisfies the sponsor
  6. Helps learners gain high scores in an external test.



CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION

Over all,language curriculum design an overview has several parts of process :
1.      Environment analysis
2.      Need analysis
3.      Application of principles
4.      Goals
5.      Content and sequencing
6.      Format and presentation
7.      Monitoring and assessment
8.      Evaluation
Then summary of the steps in designing a course,they are :
1.      Examine the environment
2.      Assess needs.
3.      Decide on principles.
4.      Set goals, and choose and sequence content.
5.      Design the lesson format.
6.      Include assessment procedures.
7.      Evaluate the course.












APPENDIX
DISCUSSION SECTION
Question-Answer