this is us

this is us

My dear friends
do you still remember the days that we have been through that year? it was fun, wasnt it?
you guys should check the video sometimes... hehehe

the features of human language

The Features Of Human Language

The Features of Human Language
(adapted from Hockett, Charles. 1960. The Origin of Speech.)

Hockett isolated 13 features that characterize human language and which distinguish it from other communication systems. The following diagram graphically represents each of the thirteen features. Each feature is numbered and listed below the diagram, along with a more developed discussion of the feature.

1. Vocal-auditory channel -- This means that the standard human language occurs as a vocal (making sounds with the mouth) type of communication which is perceived by hearing it. There are obvious exceptions: writing and sign language are examples of communication in the manual-visual channel. However, the vast majority of human languages occur in the vocal-auditory channel as their basic mode of expression. Writing is a secondary, and somewhat marginal form of language, while sign languages are in limited use, mostly among deaf people who are limited in their ability to use the auditory part of the vocal-auditory channel.

2. Broadcast transmission and directional reception -- This means that the human language signal is sent out in all directions, while it is perceived in a limited direction. For spoken language, the sound perpetuates as a waveform that expands from the point of origin (the mouth) in all directions. This is why a person can stand in the middle of a room and be heard by everyone (assuming they are speaking loudly enough). However, the listener hears the sound as coming from a particular direction and is notably better at hearing sounds that are coming from in front of the them than from behind them.

3. Rapid fading (transitoriness) -- This means that the human language signal does not persist over time. Speech waveforms fade rapidly and cannot be heard after they fade. This is why it is not possible to simply say "hello" and have someone hear it hours later. Writing and audio-recordings can be used to record human language so that it can be recreated at a later time, either by reading the written form, or by playing the audio-record.

4. Interchangeability -- This means that the speaker can both receive and broadcast the same signal. This is distinctive from some animal communications such as that of the sticklefish. The sticklefish make auditory signals based on gender (basically, the males say "I'm a boy" and the females say "I'm a girl"). However, male fish cannot say "I'm a girl," although they can perceive it. Thus, sticklefish signals are not interchangeable.

5. Total feedback -- this means that the speaker can hear themself speak and can monitor their language performance as they go. This differs from some other simple communication systems, such as traffic signals. Traffic signs are not normally capable of monitor their own functions (a red light can't tell when the bulb is burned out, i.e.).

6. Specialization -- This means that the organs used for producing speech are specially adapted to that task. The human lips, tongue, throat, etc. have been specialized into speech apparati instead of being merely the eating apparati they are in many other animals. Dogs, for example, are not physically capable of all of the speech sounds that humans produce, because they lack the necessary specialized organs.

7. Semanticity -- This means that specific signals can be matched with specific meanings. This is a fundamental aspect of all communication systems. For example, in French, the word selmeans a white, crystalline substance consisting of sodium and chlorine atoms. The same substance is matched with the English word salt. Anyone speaker of these languages will recognize that the signal sel or salt refers to the substance sodium chloride.

8. Arbitrariness -- This means that there is no necessary connection between the form of the signal and the thing being referred to. For example, something as large as a whale can be referred to by a very short word. Similarly, there is no reason that a four-legged domestic canine should be called a dog and not a chien or a perro or an anjing (all words for 'dog' in other languages). Onomatopoeic words such as "meow" or "bark" are often cited as counter-examples, based on the argument that they are pronounced like the sound they refer to. However, the similarity if very loose (a dog that actually said "bark" would be very surprising) and does not always hold up across languages (Spanish dogs, for example, say "guau"). So, even onomatopoeic words are, to some extent, arbitrary.

9. Discreteness -- This means that the basic units of speech (such as sounds) can be categorized as belonging to distinct categories. There is no gradual, continuous shading from one sound to another in the linguistics system, although there may be a continuum in the real physical world. Thus speakers will perceive a sound as either a [p] or a [b], but not as blend, even if physically it falls somewhere between the two sounds.

10. Displacement -- This means that the speaker can talk about things which are not present, either spatially or temporally. For example, human language allows speakers to talk about the past and the future, as well as the present. Speakers can also talk about things that are physically distant (such as other countries, the moon, etc.). They can even refer to things and events that do not actually exist (they are not present in reality) such as the Easter Bunny, the Earth having an emperor, or the destruction of Tara in Gone with the Wind.

11. Productivity -- This means that human languages allow speakers to create novel, never-before-heard utterances that others can understand. For example, the sentence "The little lavender men who live in my socks drawer told me that Elvis will come back from Mars on the 10th to do a benefit concert for unemployed Pekingese dogs" is a novel and never-before-heard sentence (at least, I hope it is!), but any fluent speaker of English would be able to understand it (and realize that the speaker was not completely sane, in all probability).

12. Traditional Transmission -- This means that human language is not something inborn. Although humans are probably born with an ability to do language, they must learn, or acquire, their native language from other speakers. This is different from many animal communication systems where the animal is born knowing their entire system, e.g. bees are born knowing how to dance and some birds are born knowing their species of bird-songs (this is not true of all birds).

13. Duality of patterning -- This means that the discrete parts of a language can be recombined in a systematic way to create new forms. This idea is similar to Productivity (Feature 11). However, Productivity refers to the ability to generate novel meanings, while Duality of patterning refers to the ability to recombine small units in different orders.

Perbedaan Penelitian Tindakan Kelas (PTK) dan Penelitian Formal

Perbedaan PTK dan Penelitian Formal

Tugas Metodologi Pendidikan

Dosen : Mrs. Neniek MPd

Oleh : Nana Suryana

Prodi : Bahasa Inggris 2013

STKIP KUSUMA NEGARA JAKARTA KAMPUS CILEUNGSI

2015

Perberbedaan antara PTK dan penelitian pendidikan formal terangkum dalam tabel di bawah ini.

Table-tabel berikut berdasar dari beberapa pendapat yang di rangkum untuk membedakan penelitian tindakan kelas dengan penelitian formal biasa.

No	Penelitian pendikan formal	PTK
1	Dilakukan oleh orang di luar kelas, misalnya dosen, ilmuwan atau mahasiswa yang melakukan eksperimen tertentu	Dilakukan oleh kepala sekolah, guru atau calon guru
2	Di lingkungan dimana variable-variabel luar dapat dikendalikan	Di kelas dan di sekolah
3	Sampel harus representative	Representatif sampel tidak menjadi persyaratan penting
4	Mengutamakan validitas internal dan eksternal	Lebih mengutamakan validitas internal
5	Menuntut penggunaan analisis statistika yang rumit, menetapkan signifikansi lebih awal dan memeriksa hubungan sebab akibat antar variable	Tidak menuntut penggunaan statistic yang rumit, menggunakan metode kualitatif untuk mendeskripsikan apa yang terjadi dan memahami dampak suatu intervensi pendidikan (tindakan)
6	Men mpersyaratkan hipotesis	Tidak selalu menggunakan hipotesis
7	Mengembangkan teori dan tidak memperbaiki praktek pembelajaran secara langsung	Memperbaiki praktek pembelajaran secara langsung
8	Hasil penelitian dapat digeneralisasikan ke populasi yang lebih besar	Hasil penelitian merupakan peningkatan mutu pembelajaran di lingkungan pembelajaran tertentu tempat dilakukannya PTK
9	Berlangsung secara linier (bergerak maju)	Berlangsung secara siklik (berdaur)
10	Tidak kolaboratif dan individual	Kolaboratif dan kooperatif

Sumber: Susilo (2009)

NO	DIMENSI	PTK	PENELITIAN FORMAL
1	Motivasi	Tindakan	Kebenaran
2	Sumber masalah	Dia gnosis status	Induktif-Deduktif
3	Tujuan	Memperbaiki praktik, sekarang dan di sini	Verifikasi & menemukan pengetahuan yang dapat digeneralisasi
4	Peneliti yang terlibat	Pelaku dari dalam (guru)	Orang luar yang tertarik
5	Sampel	Kasus khusus	Sampel yang representatif
6	Metodologi	Longgar tetapi berusaha untuk objektif, jujur, dan tidak memihak	Baku dengan objektivitas dan ketidakmemihakan yang terintegrasi (build-in objectivity & impartiality)
7	Penafsiran Hasil Penelitian	Untuk memahami praktik melalui refleksi oleh praktisi yang membangun	Mendeskripsikan, mengabstraksi, serta menyimpulkan dan membentuk teori oleh ilmuwan
8	Hasil Akhir	Siswa belajar lebih baik (proses dan produk)	Pengetahuan, prosedur, atau materi yang teruji.

Setiap jenis penelitian mempunyai karakteristik tersendiri. Demikian juga halnya dengan Penelitian Tindakan Kelas. Berbagai pendapat dari ahli pendidikan mengungkapkan tentang beberapa karakteristik PTK. Dikutip dari Bahan Pelatihan Dosen LPTK dan Guru Sekolah Menengah karya Raka Joni, Kardia Warman dan Hadisubroto tahun 1998, perbedaan karakteristik PTK dengan penelitian formal dapat dilihat pada tabel:

Pengertian PTK Penelitian tindakan di kelas Empat ide pokok dari pengertian semantik Penelitian tindakan

1. Penelitian tindakan adalah satu bentuk inkuiri atau penyelidikan yang dilakukan melalui refleksi diri

2. Penelitian Tindakan dilakukan oleh peserta yang terlibat dalam situasi yang diteliti, seperti guru, kepala sekolah atau siswa

3. Penelitian Tindakan dilakukan pada Situasi sosial, termasuk situasi pendidikan

4. Penelitian Tindakan bertujuan untuk memperbaiki : dasar pemikiran, kepantasan dari praktik-praktik, pemahaman terhadap praktik, atau lembaga tempat praktik dilaksanakan PT K adalah penelitian yang dilakukan oleh guru dalam kelasnya sendiri melalui refleksi diri, dengan tujuan untuk memperbaiki kinerjanya sebagai guru, sehingga hasil

Karakteristik PTK

1. Masalah dalam PTK dipicu oleh munculnya kesadaran bahwa ada sesuatu yang perlu diperbaiki dalam praktik pembelajaran selama ini, dan perbaikan diprakarsai dari dalam diri sendiri

2. Self-reflective inquiry, guru mengumpulkan data dari praktiknya sendiri melalui refleksi diri

3. Dilakukan didalam kelas, sehingga fokus penelitian adalah kegiatan pembelajaran, yaitu interaksi guru-siswa

4. Tujuan PTK, untuk memperbaiki pembelajaran. Perbaikan dilakukan secara bertahap dan terus menerus. Sehingga PTK dikenal memiliki siklus pelaksanaan berupa pola : perencanaan- pelaksanaan-observasi-refleksi-revisi (perencanaan ulang)

Kondisi Persyaratan PTK Sekolah harus memberikan kebebasan yang memadai bagi guru untuk melakukan PTK Birokrasi dan hirarki organisasi di sekolah hendaknya diminimalkan Sekolah seharusnya selalu mempertanyakan apa yang diinginkan sekolahnya Keterbukaan dari semua staff sekolah Kepala sekolah dan staf administrasi harus menunjang terjadinya pembaharuan Guru dan siswa harus mempunyai rasa percaya diri yang tinggi Guru harus siap menghadapi kecemburuan social

Sedangkan penelitian Formal adalah bentuk penelitian umum yang tidak terikat kedalam kelas dan dapat di lakukan dimana saja dengan tujuan mengetahui hasil dari sesuatu atau mengukur kepantasan sesuatu.

contoh bahan reading

 Berikut adalah contoh bahan reading, 

Big Ben

Big Ben is the nickname of the Great Bell of Westminster, the hour bell of the Great Clock, hanging in the Clock Tower of the Palace of Westminster, the home of the Houses of Parliament in the United Kingdom.

One theory holds that the bell was named "Big Ben" after Sir Benjamin Hall, the Chief Commissioner of Works. Another theory suggests that at the time anything which was heaviest of its kind was called "Big Ben" after the then-famous prizefighter Benjamin Caunt, making it a natural name for the bell.

Big Ben is commonly taken to be the name of the clock tower itself, but this is incorrect - the tower is simply known as The Clock Tower. Sometimes, the tower is referred to as St. Stephen's Tower, but this title is not used by staff of the Palace of Westminster.

The bell weighs 13.8 tonnes (13 tons 10cwt 99lb), with a striking hammer weighing 203.2kg (4cwt), and was originally tuned to E. There is delay of 5 seconds between strikes. It is a common misconception that Big Ben is the heaviest bell in Britain. In fact, it is only the third heaviest, the second heaviest being Great George found at Liverpool Cathedral (14 tons 15cwt 2qr 2lb) and the heaviest being Great Paul found at St Paul's Cathedral (16 tons 14cwt 2qt 19lb).

The original tower designs demanded a 14 ton bell to be struck with a 6cwt hammer. A bell was produced by John Warner and Sons in 1856, weighing 16 tons. However, this cracked under test in the Palace Yard. The contract for the bell was then given to the Whitechapel Bell Foundry, who in 1858 re-cast the bell into the 13 ton bell used today. It too started to crack under the 6cwt hammer, and a legal battle arose. After two years of having the Great Bell out of commission, the 6cwt hammer was replaced with a lighter 4cwt hammer, and the bell itself was turned 90 degrees so the crack would not develop any further, coming back into use in 1862. However, the crack, now filled, and the turn meant that it no longer struck a true E.

The belfry also houses four quarter bells which play the Westminster Chimes, derived from Handel's Messiah, on the quarter hours. The C note in the chime is repeated twice in quick succession, faster than the chiming train can draw back the hammers, so the C bell uses two separate hammers.

Reliability

The clock is famous for its reliability. This is due to its designer, the lawyer and amateur horologist Edmund Beckett Denison, later Lord Grimthorpe. As the clock mechanism, created to Denison's specification by clockmaker Edward John Dent, was completed before the tower itself was finished, Denison had time to experiment with the clock. Instead of using the deadbeat escapement and remontoire as originally designed, Denison invented the double three legged gravity escapement. This escapement provides the best separation between pendulum and clock mechanism. Together with an enclosed, wind-proof box sunk beneath the clockroom, the Great Clock's pendulum is well isolated from external factors like snow, ice and pigeons on the clock hands, and keeps remarkably accurate time.

The clock had its first and only major breakdown in 1975. The famous quarter bells broke in late April 2004, and were reactivated again on May 9. During this time BBC Radio Four had to make do with the pips.

The idiom of putting a penny on, with the meaning of slowing down, sprung from the method of fine-tuning the clock's pendulum by adding or subtracting penny-coins. Even to this day, only old pennies, phased out of British currency during the 1971 Decimalization, are used.

A 20-foot metal replica of the clock tower known as Little Ben, complete with working clock, stands on a traffic island close to Victoria Station. Several turret clocks around the world are inspired by the look of the Great Clock, including the clock tower of the Gare de Lyon in Paris and the Peace Tower of the Parliament of Canada in Ottawa.

Culture

Big Ben is a focus of New Year celebrations in the UK, with radio and TV stations tuning to its chimes to welcome the 'official' start of the year. Similarly, on Remembrance Day, the chimes of Big Ben are broadcast to mark the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month and the start of two minutes silence.

For many years ITN's "News at Ten" began with an opening sequence which featured Big Ben with the chimes punctuating the anouncement of the news headlines. This has since been dropped, but all ITV1 and ITV News Channel bulletins still use a graphic based on the Westminster clock face. Big Ben can also be heard striking the hour before some news bulletins on BBC Radio 4 and the BBC World Service, a practice that began on December 31, 1923.

The clock features in John Buchan's spy novel The Thirty-Nine Steps and makes for a memorable climax in Don Sharp's 1978 film version, although not in Alfred Hitchcock's 1935 original adaptation. A similar scene is recreated in the 2003 film, Shanghai Knights which culminates with Jackie Chan hanging from the hands of the clock. The clock also appears in the animated cartoon Basil, the Great Mouse Detective.

An earlier film climax on the clock face of Big Ben appears in Will Hay's 1943 film My Learned Friend, although the scene is more slapstick than thriller.

Tugas Reading 2,

Nama : Nana Suryana

BIG BEN

England has many gigantic building and fine architecture things, one of them is big ben. Big ben is the nick name of great bell of westminter. This is a symbol of England and so much people focus there around the big ben every year to celebrate a new year. Big ben is an important spot to visit when you there in England. Historical building designed by Edmund becket Denison is a giant clock to show the time. But as time goes by, this giant clock is a magnet of England and home of the Houses of Parliament in the United Kingdom. Many people and international artist inspired by big ben to make a novel, films and used it as a banner for tv show.

1.      Big ben located at westminter palace England

a.      True                                   b. False

2.      Edmund Becket Denison designed the great clock of big ben

a.      True                                   b. False

3.      Big ben was built on 19^th century

a.      True                                   b. False

4.      British people celebrate new year party around the big ben every year

a.      True                                   b. False

5.      Many artist inspired by big ben

a.      True                                   b. False